Leather is the name given to animal hides and skins which have been processed
and tanned to create a durable material. Without tanning, the animal hides
would begin to decompose immediately; tanning is the process of adding
chemical preservatives to the skins and hides to ensure they do not biodegrade.
Most leather comes from cattle; both dairy and beef cattle hides are turned
into leather after the animal is
slaughtered. Eighty six per cent of all leather manufactured in the UK
originates from bovine animals (National Statistics, 2007).
The softest
leather, slink comes from unborn calves; slink leather is highly desirable
and expensive because it is rare. This leather can only be obtained by
slaughtering a pregnant cow; this soft leather is then often used for delicate
products such as leather gloves. Almost 150,000 pregnant cows are killed
each year in the UK. Slink can also be obtained from lambs who die at birth,
this accounts for two per cent of all lambs born in the UK (Meat South
West, 2007). Slink leather is only found on high-end products due to its
rarity and expense.
As well as cows, leather also comes from pigs, goats,
sheep and deer. In 2000 the UK produced 18.4 million sheepskins (Department
for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2008). Chamois leather is the
inside layer of flesh from lambs and sheep. Due to its size it is rarely
used for shoe or upholstery and is used mainly to produce clothing due
to its softness and flexibility.
Leather also comes from alligators, crocodiles, toads, sharks, buffalos,
eels, ostriches, lizards, snakes, salmon, seals, zebras, dolphins…the list
goes on.
What is considered to be the extravagant end of the leather market
is certainly not glamorous for the animals involved. “The European Union
is the world's biggest importer of reptile skins. Between 2000 and 2005,
it is estimated that 3.4 million lizards, 2.9 million crocodile and 3.4
million snake skins were brought into the EU.” (Rawstorne, 2007) Ostriches,
which are native to hot climates such as Africa and the middle east, are
now farmed in the UK for their meat and skin; in the US alligators and
crocodiles are clubbed to death or have a chisel smashed through their
spinal cord to paralyse them before being skinned alive; and wild snakes
are also skinned alive (Rawstorne, 2007). Wild species killed for their
coats have very little protection and may also be endangered – try wearing
that on your conscience as well as your feet!
Australia exports approximately
3 million kangaroo skins, worth more than £12 million, to Europe and the
USA every year. The vast majority of these skins are used to make football
boots. Products are often labelled ‘K leather’ or ‘RKT’ (rubberised kangaroo
technology) to disguise the fact that they are made from the skins of butchered
kangaroos. Each year, the Australian government sets a quota for the number
of kangaroos the industry can kill; for 2008 it was 3.5 million (Australian
Government, 2008).
Kangaroos are shot at night in the vast outback and
hunters are supposed to adhere to a Code of Practice, a guideline which
is neither legally-enforceable nor linked to the Australian Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals Act. According to the Code, to kill kangaroos ‘humanely’
hunters should shoot them once in the head, but frequently the animals
may be shot in the throat, the neck, or have their jaws blown off. An investigation
by Viva! revealed that official numbers for the kill do not include the
baby kangaroos who also die as the worthless ‘waste’ of the industry. Tiny
joeys are pulled from their dead mothers’ pouches and stamped on, clubbed
or simply left to die.
Older joeys hop away into the night invariably to die of starvation, predation,
cold or neglect (Eckersley, 1989). Six species of kangaroo are already
extinct, with four more species extinct on the Australian mainland and
17 species listed as endangered or vulnerable (Gellatley, 2006) and since
2001 kangaroo numbers have plummeted by 57 per cent in areas where they
are hunted (Australian Government, 2008).
Ostrich is yet another wild animal
forced to suffer because of the fashion industry. These amazing wild birds
are now factory farmed in the UK. They are penned up; their eggs taken
away and their chicks killed at one year old. Unable to shed rain from
their feathers, here they are at risk from exposure and pneumonia. Slaughter
bound birds are often starved for hours or days before they are killed.
A hood is placed over the bird’s head before slaughter supposedly to calm
him down. His legs are hobbled and the hood is soaked in water. An electric
sheep stunner is clamped across his head, the bird is hoisted up and his
throat cut. Another method of stunning is the captive bolt pistol. However,
the UK government states that this is unsuitable for ostriches and should
not be used. The bird's delicate skull can stop the stunner from working
or it may be shot in the wrong part of his head – meaning agony to a conscious
bird aware of his life blood draining away (Gellatley, 1999). To end the
suffering of wild animals like those mentioned above, Viva! is urging the
public to boycott products made from exotic leather and brands that sell
the skins of these beautiful creatures.
Most leather produced in the UK comes from cattle. Over two and a half
million cattle were slaughtered in the UK in 2007 (Department for Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs, 2008). The same year, sales of leather from UK
manufacturers amounted to over £200 million (National Statistics, 2007).
On top of this, £4 billion worth of leather goods (not including furniture)
were imported to the UK in 2007 (HM Revenues and Customs, 2008). 
These
figures show that the leather industry is substantial, bringing in big
money for its beneficiaries. For this reason, and the fact that leather
accounts for between 7-10 per cent of the animal’s total financial worth
(Garnett, 2007, British Leather Centre, 2008), it should be looked at as
an industry in its own right, not merely a by-product of the meat and dairy
industries.
Tara Garnett of the Food Climate Research Network states: “The
last 20 years have in fact seen rapid growth in leather production. Global
production of raw cattle hides grew 24 per cent between 1984-2004 – a faster
growth than the production of cattle meat, at 19 per cent over the same
period” (Garnett, 2007). With leather production increasing faster than
meat production, this brings to question the claim that leather is a by-product.
If leather demand continues to increase and meat production decreases it
is unlikely leather production would stop. Therefore, anyone buying and
wearing leather may be encouraging the slaughter of more animals.
Leather
is made using the hides of both beef and dairy cattle. Beef cows are bred
simply to eat, grow and die. Dairy cows are among the most exploited animals
on the planet. Like all mammals, cows only produce milk when they have
offspring, so to increase productivity a dairy cow’s life is a constant
cycle of pregnancy and lactation.
This puts the cows under huge physical
strain as well as immense mental distress. After being allowed to suckle
her colostrum – the first milk produced by the mother – within days of
being born their calves are taken away to maximise the amount of milk available
to humans. Female calves may follow the same fate as their mothers but
many male calves, unable to produce milk and too scrawny for beef, are
deemed useless to the farming industry and are killed at a few days old.
Others are killed for veal or lower grade beef. A ‘productive’ dairy cow
will supply 12,000 litres of milk a year – an unnatural amount 10 times
more than her calf could require. Such an excessive burden leads to protruding
pelvic and rib bones, constant hunger and massively distended udders. The
energy dairy cows expend is so great, most only manage three lactations
before being killed (Vernelli, 2005).
The majority of cattle are stunned
with the captive bolt pistol. Penetrative captive bolt stunners drive a
bolt into the skull and cause unconsciousness both through physical brain
damage and the concussive blow to the skull. The bolt on a non-penetrative
stunner is ‘mushroom-headed’ and impacts on the brain without entering
the skull. Unconsciousness is caused by the concussive blow (Vernelli,
2005).
If an animal is not accurately stunned or the correct cartridge
strength is not used, the stun will not be effective. In an attempt to
improve accuracy, legislation requires that cattle are either confined
in a stunning pen or have their heads ‘securely fastened’. However, head
restraint systems can cause great distress. The Meat Hygiene Service says
that 17 per cent of abattoirs either do not use a restraint or use an “inefficient”
restraint which can result in the stun be ing delivered ineffectively (Meat
Hygiene Service, 2000).
Abattoir vet Gabriele Meurer said: “Not many animals
stand still. They are all upset, some very frightened and some move violently.
The animals are never given time to calm down. Sometimes the slaughterman
misses, wounding the animal terribly instead of stunning it. It may happen
that the second shot cannot be done immediately and the animal is suffering
for quite some time.” (Smith, 2000)
In addition to the stress of being
in an unfamiliar environment, the electric goad can legally be used on
the hindquarters of cattle if they are refusing to move forwards (Department
for Environmental, Food and Rural Affairs, 2008). This cruel device is
intentionally designed to cause pain.
Once the animal has been stunned
(or not as the case may be), the legs are shackled and the animal is lifted
into the air; once upside down, the throat is cut and the cow is left to
bleed. If any blood remains in the veins, it will discolour the meat and
also reduce the quality of the hide.
This is how cattle are slaughtered
in the UK, those slaughtered abroad may suffer an even less humane death
(for a full investigation by Viva! into the slaughter of farmed animals
in the UK, see http://www.viva.org.uk/campaigns/slaughter/index.htm). Developing
countries are heavily involved with the leather industry; this includes
raising and slaughtering cattle. However, developing countries do not have
the same animal welfare standards as Britain ineffectual as they are; in
fact some countries such as China and India barely enforce the very few
welfare standards in place.
After slaughter, the animal is left to bleed, then a cut is made through
the belly from the throat of the animal to the tail, right angle cuts are
made perpendicular to this line and across to the inside of each of the
legs. A flaying machine is used to strip all of the skin from the animal
in one movement. Next, the hide is cured to avoid putrefaction or bacterial
damage which could reduce the quality of the finished leather. Curing can
be achieved by soaking the hides in a saturated brine solution for up to
16 hours. Once the hides have been
penetrated by the salt they are preserved and can be transported to the
tannery. Upon arrival at the tannery (which can be on the other side of
the world), the curing process must be reversed. Batches of hides are soaked
inside drums of cold water solutions which include salt, detergent and
biocide; this process can last from several hours to several days depending
on the method used. The water inside the drum is changed once it becomes
contaminated and clean solution is added, this is repeated until the water
runs clean.
The next process, known as liming, removes the hairs and unwanted
layers of skin from the hide. Sodium sulphide or sodium hydrosulphide is
added to the soaked skins and begins to deteriorate the hairs, strong alkalis
such as lime and caustic soda are then added to dissolve the hair root
and epidermis (the outer layer of skin). The skins must then be washed
to remove any unwanted chemicals.
The hides are then put through a fleshing machine which removes any fat
and tissues from the skin; this allows maximum penetration during the tanning
stage. Ammonium chloride is then added to the skin to neutralise the pH.
Bacterial enzymes are added to the hides to deteriorate muscle fibres;
this relaxes and softens the hides. The hides are then put through a scudding
machine which drags a dull blade over the surface of the skin to remove
any remaining hair rot, skin pigmentation and surface fats.
The hide must be then be tanned to create a material which will not putrefy.
There are various types of tans available; the preferred tanning method
will depend upon the eventual use of the leather (Lanning, 1996).
Vegetable
tanning is often touted as environmentally friendly because plant-sources
are used in the process. The idea that plant sources are natural and therefore
the leather must be green is being exploited by companies to cash in on
the eco-consumer. However, a report from the International Union of Leather
Technologists and Chemists Societies found that vegetable tanning should
not be considered more environmentally friendly due to the high pollution
load in conventional systems. The report also found that vegetable tanned
leather is less easily biodegraded than chrome leather due to the differences
in the tanning stages (International Union of Leather Technologists and
Chemists Societies, 2004). Chrome tanning is the most commonly used method
for tanning hides; more than 90 per cent of global leather is chrome-tanned
(Sunday et al, 2002). Chrome tanning takes place within large drums. Batches
of hides are placed in the drums of chromium sulphate solution, and the
process can take up to 24 hours which is quicker than vegetable tanning
(International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement, 2008).
Once the chromium sulphate solution has penetrated the skin, an alkaline
chemical such as sodium carbonate or bicarbonate is added to the drum to
ensure the tan is permanent (HM Revenues and Customs, 2003).
The hide may then be split, but this will depend upon the final use of
the leather. After tanning the leather is put through a shaving machine
which levels out the thickness of the skin. The blades of the shaving machine
can sometimes leave iron deposits on the skin and so they must be soaked
in oxalic acid overnight to dispose of any iron. The final stages of leather
production will depend upon the requirements of the finished product. Dyes
are then added to large drums with the leather, synthetic dyes are most
commonly used in today’s leather production as there are many different
colours available. Fat liquors are also added to the drums to replace the
natural oils lost during the tanning process; this allows the leather to
remain flexible. Fat liquors may contain fish oils or animal fats. Once
the dyes and fat liquors have been given enough time to penetrate the leather,
formic acid is added to the solution to ensure permanent penetration. The
hide is then removed from the drums and left to dry, it is now leather
and can be used to create products.
The chemicals used in leather production include biocide, sodium sulphate
or sodium hydrosulphate, lime and caustic soda, ammonium chloride, bacterial
enzymes, chromium sulphate solution, sodium carbonate or bicarbonate, trivalent
chromium and oxalic acid – however these may vary at different tanneries.
Some of these chemicals can be very dangerous if not handled properly.
Due to the high levels of toxicity, some of these chemicals can cause skin
burns, blindness and scarring. Some of the chemicals are known carcinogens
and can be fatal if swallowed or inhaled.
Many studies have been done to investigate the effect of the chemicals
on those employed in leather production. Tannery workers have an increased
risk of suffering from skin and melanoma, kidney, bladder, testicular,
lung and pancreatic cancers (Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental
Medicine, 2007). European and UK regulations regarding leather production,
effluent, and environmental damage are much stricter than those implemented
in developing countries. This is one of the reasons why the tanning industry
is
relocating to countries such as China and India where environmental regulations
are much less strict. Zhang Jingjing is a lawyer at the Centre for Legal
Assistance to Pollution Victims, she said that in China, the Guo He River:
“Has become polluted with waste from a nearby leather tanning factory.
A few years ago, villagers could swim in the river. Now they get blisters
on their hands and feet from touching the water. … When you stand close
to the river you can smell rotting flesh because the leather factory dumps
its sewage, made up from animal skin and meat, untreated into the river.”
(New Scientist, 2007)
The film Hell for Leather (2008) found that leather tanneries in Bangladesh
(India) were pouring 50 tonnes of tannery effluent and waste water untreated
into the Buriganga River every day. The film also shows footage of the
tannery workers wearing no protective clothing, wading through vats of
solutions containing toxic chemicals. The film claims that 90 per cent
of the tannery workers in the film are estimated to be dead by the time
they are 50 years old due to the abuse of toxic chemicals (Hell for Leather,
2008).
Another reason that the tanning industry is based outside the developed
world is the low labour costs. Developing countries have less (if any)
laws governing employment. This means tannery owners are able to put their
workers in situations which may be hazardous to their health knowing it
is unlikely they will be held accountable for any problems which may arise
as a result. Some countries allow child labour, some of the leather workers
in Colombia are children as young as five. Working with toxic chemicals
these children are exposed to health hazards including burns, intoxification,
fumigation, injuries, fractures, amputations and vision impairment (Bureau
of International Labor Affairs, 2008).
It’s not just tannery workers who are suffering skin problems because
of the leather industry, there have been at least 1,000 complaints from
within the UK (Bracchi, 2008). The BBC’s Watchdog consumer programme discovered
that hundreds of people in the UK were suffering itchy skin, blistering
and burns after they came into contact with leather sofas from a company
called Linkwise (BBC Consumer, 2008). After investigation it came to light
that a fungicide called dimethyl fumarate was the problem. The fungicide
was placed inside the sofas to prevent mould during transportation from
China. Upon contact with skin, the fungicide caused swelling, burns, blisters
and irritation to people across the UK, one victim was only six months
old (Bracchi, 2008).
Leather production is an inefficient use of water; a cow can drink up
to 127 litres of water a day (Wardle, 2007). Agriculture uses 70 per cent
of the world’s fresh water (Food and Agriculture Organisation, 2008). Leather
production uses large volumes of it because water is used in raising and
slaughtering the animal, and then during the tanning process. The world’s
water is in short supply. Water scarcity affects four out of 10 people
on the planet (World Health Organisation, 2008); developing countries suffer
the most. Leather tanning is mostly outsourced to developing countries
which means that the limited water they have access to is being used industrially
instead, it also puts people at risk of contaminated water due to the unsafe
disposal of effluent.
When considering the environmental impact of meat, industry scientists
do not separate cattle rearing into meat and leather greenhouse gases,
they merely look at the cow as part of the meat industry. However, aspreviously
discussed, leather is an industry in its own right not simply a by-product
of the meat and dairy trades. Therefore, when considering the water used
to create leather, the entire lifecycle of the cow shall be considered.
On average, one cow hide will provide 18 pairs of leather shoes (North
American International Livestock Exposition, 2008), and each pair of shoes
is accountable for the use of over 1.4 million litres of water. This figure
includes the water used to rear and slaughter the cow, and to process the
hide into leather. Put simply, each time you purchase a new pair of leather
shoes you are responsible for using as much water as having a bath every
day for over 40 years! In a world where we are told the benefits of showering
over bathing for water conservation, should we not have been informed about
this grossly inefficient use of water?
Around 80 per cent of the world’s raw hides are produced in developed
countries, however it is the developing countries where the hides are processed
and tanned to create leather (Garnett, 2007). Leather production involves
transporting various elements across the world. Firstly, the UK imports
animal feed from across the globe to feed livestock. Once the animals have
been slaughtered, the hides and skins are transported from the UK to countries
such as India and China where the tanning industry is based. Once tanned
the leather is transported as a final product back to developed countries
including the UK for sale in shops. One pair of leather shoes could require
numerous trips around the globe until they are finally ready to sell. No
matter how cheap you can buy real leather these days; it is the cost to
the planet we should be worried about.
Some people have the misguided view that leather is the only choice for
shoes and if you are crazy enough to opt for vegetarian alternatives your
feet will sweat, or the shoes won’t fit properly, this is simply not true!
Advances in science mean that non-leather shoes now last a long time, stretch
to your feet (like leather) and let your feet breathe. Leather-free shoes
aren’t ugly or unfashionable either, in fact, with companies like Beyond
Skin they’re quite the opposite: beautifully made and deliciously fashionable
vegan shoes are the answer for any cruelty-free fashionista!
Synthetics shoes are often seen
as bad for the environment because they may involve plastics. Although
it is true that plastics are harmful to the environment due to the toxic
chemicals used in their manufacture and the fact that they do not biodegrade,
these problems are also true of leather and at least synthetics are cruelty
free. One way to offset your green guilt for buying plastic shoes is to
buy less or buy eco shoes (see below)! The UK throws away two million pairs
of shoes a week (The Recycling Consortium, 2008) – that’s a lot of waste!
It is important to see your clothes as an investment, buying good quality
clothes means they will last longer so try to buy leather-free shoes that
you can wear with different outfits for years to come. 
Thanks
to the wonders of technology and design there are now high-quality, practical,
animal-free materials available for everyone. Vegetan Uppers, for example,
(used by companies such as Vegetarian Shoes) are great for every day wear,
being breathable, waterresistant, 70-80 per cent biodegradable and easy
to clean. Or those who need something tougher can get Vegetan Micro – hard-wearing,
water-resistant, breathable, exceptionally like highquality leather in
performance and has a distinctive grain. Also used by Vegetarian Shoes
is Stretch Fake Suede, which is elasticated, breathable and soft to the
touch!
There are lots of eco-shoes available too though! Hemp shoes are great
for the environment because they are made from a fast growing plant which
can be used to create strong, durable and breathable shoes which are especially
good in hot weather. Sativa makes hemp shoes and bags.
Another way to save the environment while looking irresistibly fashionable
is getting your hands on some sandals made from recycled car tyres from
Ethical Wares. Fashion is using more and more recycled products each season,
so keep your eyes peeled for more vegan-friendly recycled shoes in the
future!
There are lots of eco-shoes available too though! Hemp shoes are great
for the environment because they are made from a fast growing plant which
can be used to create strong, durable and breathable shoes which are especially
good in hot weather. Sativa makes hemp shoes and bags.
Another way to save
the environment while looking irresistibly fashionable is getting your
hands on some sandals made from recycled car tyres from Ethical Wares.
Fashion is using more and more recycled products each season, so keep your
eyes peeled for more vegan-friendly recycled shoes in the future!
One justification people often use for wearing leather is that it is natural;
this report shows why this theory is wrong. Another excuse often given
is that leather shoes date back to the cavemen era. This may be so, but
it hardly excuses wearing leather now does it? We are not cavemen, we live
in a ‘civilised’ society in the middle of an environmental crisis and we
should act accordingly. Leather is not a by-product, it generates profit
for the meat industry and is therefore an integral cog in the killing machine,
and if you believe animal slaughter to be wrong then surely exploiting
their carcasses is equally offensive?
Being vegetarian or vegan saves lives, but so does going leather-free!
Vegans and many vegetarians refuse to buy or wear leather because of the
animal suffering and killing involved. The leather industry is big money,
and by boycotting leather products they are using their consumer power
to tell companies that animal abuseis unacceptable.
It is not only the animals who suffer for leather, the trade workers are
more likely to suffer illnesses, those who live near tanneries in developing
countries find their fresh water supply infected with effluent, and the
environmental damage caused by leather is appalling, when you take these
facts into consideration it is hard to justify choosing leather over more
eco-friendly materials.
- Don’t buy or wear leather
- Don’t buy leather upholstery for your home or car, always choose the
cruelty-free option
- Educate your friends and family about leather and ask them not to buy
it in future
- Order a free pack of Viva!’s leather leaflets for door to door delivery
and raise awareness in your area
- Write to businesses and ask them to do a non-leather version of your
favourite shoe
- Write to businesses and ask them to label their non-leather shoes as
vegan
- Write to your local newspaper regarding the environmental damage caused
by leather production
- Visit www.thebigcoverup.org.uk for more ideas of how you can get involved
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